Electric Vehicle Shared Services: A Decade of Innovation, Challenges, and Transformative Impact on Sustainable Urban Mobility — A Systematic Review

Electric Vehicle Shared Services: A Decade of Research Reveals 14–65% Emission Cuts, But Infrastructure Gaps Persist

A systematic review of 52 studies published over the past decade offers the most comprehensive picture yet of how electric vehicle shared services (EVSS) are reshaping urban mobility—and where they still fall short. The review, released on May 6, 2025, in *The Open Transportation Journal*, has already been downloaded more than 11,800 times in six months, signaling a thirst for evidence-based guidance as cities worldwide scramble to decarbonize transport.

1. Introduction: A Decade of Shared Electric Mobility Research

Electric Vehicle Shared Services—encompassing car-sharing, ride-hailing, and scooter-sharing fleets powered by electric motors—have emerged as a promising pillar of sustainable urban mobility. By combining the efficiency of shared use with the environmental benefits of electrification, EVSS aims to reduce private car ownership, cut emissions, and free up urban space. But a decade of rapid innovation and experimentation has also exposed persistent obstacles.

[IMAGE: A timeline graphic showing key milestones in EVSS research from 2014 to 2023, with icons for studies and citations. The timeline includes markers for early pilot projects, the rise of e-scooters, and the COVID-19 inflection point.]

To separate hype from reality, researchers applied the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) methodology to screen thousands of publications, ultimately analyzing **52 peer-reviewed studies** published between 2014 and 2023. The review synthesizes findings across North America, Europe, and Asia, covering a mix of business models, vehicle types, and urban contexts. The high download count—11,803 within six months of publication—reflects a growing appetite among policymakers, fleet operators, and investors for rigorous, comparable data on electric shared mobility.

Why a decade-long review matters now. Early EVSS pilots, from Paris’s Autolib’ to Shenzhen’s e-taxi programs, generated enthusiasm but also revealed unforeseen hurdles. Later studies refined our understanding of user behavior, cost dynamics, and infrastructure needs. By aggregating this body of work, the review provides a roadmap for what works—and what must change—to scale EVSS into a mainstream mobility solution.

2. The Environmental Promise: Emission Reductions from 14% to 65%

The headline finding is unambiguous: **EVSS can cut greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 14% to 65%** compared to traditional internal combustion engine vehicles. The wide range, however, reveals a crucial nuance: the actual environmental benefit depends on a cascade of factors.

[IMAGE: Bar chart comparing average emissions per passenger-km for EVSS, private internal combustion cars, private electric vehicles, and city buses. The chart highlights the 14–65% reduction range for EVSS relative to gasoline cars.]

"What makes this range so important is that it shows EVSS is not a silver bullet," says the review's lead author. "The 65% reduction is achieved under ideal conditions: high vehicle occupancy, electricity from renewable sources, and efficient fleet management. The 14% end of the spectrum occurs when vehicles are used infrequently, charged on a coal-heavy grid, or are oversized for typical trips."

The review disaggregates the numbers across several dimensions:

**Vehicle type**: Electric cargo bikes and e-scooters achieve the highest per-kilometer savings, while larger electric vans used in ride-hailing show more modest gains.
**Energy source**: Systems powered by renewable electricity produce 40–65% fewer emissions than those drawing from fossil-fuel grids.
**Occupancy rates**: Car-sharing services with high utilization (multiple trips per day) significantly outperform private EVs, which sit idle 95% of the time.
**Operational efficiency**: Efficient routing, smart charging (avoiding peak grid demand), and vehicle right-sizing amplify savings.

Compared to other sustainable modes, EVSS occupies a middle ground. Public transit remains the lowest-emission option per passenger-km in dense urban corridors, but EVSS fills a critical gap for first- and last-mile trips, off-peak hours, and areas underserved by buses or trains. Private electric vehicles, while cleaner than gasoline cars, still carry the embedded emissions of manufacturing and battery production—and they perpetuate car dependency.

The **systematic review** offers robust statistical confidence because it aggregates findings across diverse contexts. While individual studies often report localized results, the meta-analytical lens reveals consistent patterns: **shared electric mobility** delivers real, but variable, climate benefits.

3. Persistent Barriers: Charging Infrastructure, Costs, and Range Anxiety

Despite the environmental promise, the review identifies three stubborn barriers that have prevented EVSS from achieving mass adoption:

Limited Charging Infrastructure

The most cited obstacle across all 52 studies is the lack of accessible, reliable public charging. "Limited charging infrastructure necessitates significant investment in public charging networks," the review states bluntly. In many cities, EVSS operators must deploy their own chargers, a capital-intensive process that slows expansion. The result is a classic chicken-and-egg problem: sparse charging networks deter users, while low adoption discourages private investment in more stations.

[IMAGE: Infographic illustrating the circular feedback loop between charging station density, user adoption rates, and investment levels—with arrows showing the chicken-and-egg dilemma. A breakout box highlights the need for coordinated public-private action.]

High Upfront Costs

Purchasing electric vehicles and installing charging infrastructure requires substantial capital. For car-sharing fleets, the total cost of ownership for an EV remains 20–40% higher than for an equivalent gasoline vehicle in many markets, even after accounting for lower fuel and maintenance costs. Battery costs have fallen sharply—from over $1,000/kWh in 2010 to around $140/kWh in 2023—but the upfront purchase price still deters operators, especially startups. The review finds that subsidies and tax incentives are critical to closing this gap, yet many cities have phased out or failed to renew EV purchase programs.

Range Anxiety—Still Real

Range anxiety persists even as modern EVs achieve 250–400 km per charge. In shared services, users do not own the vehicle and cannot plan charging around their personal routines. They worry about being stranded with a depleted battery, particularly in areas where charging stations are scarce or occupied. The review notes that psychological barriers may be as significant as technical ones: studies show that users overestimate the frequency of unmet charging needs. But until infrastructure density reaches a tipping point—roughly one public charger per 10 to 15 shared vehicles, based on modeling in the review—range anxiety will remain a drag on adoption.

These three barriers reinforce each other. Limited infrastructure inflates costs (operators must build their own), which in turn keeps fleets small, which worsens range anxiety (fewer vehicles means fewer opportunities to find a charged one). Breaking this cycle requires a coordinated strategy.

4. Pathways to Scale: Policy, Technology, and Behavioral Insights

The review does not merely catalog problems—it synthesizes evidence on how to overcome them. Three pathways emerge as most promising:

Policy Interventions

Governments hold the strongest levers. The review highlights successful case studies where cities have:

**Subsidized charging hubs**: Dedicated on-street spaces for EVSS vehicles, often with prioritized access and discounted electricity rates.
**Created low-emission zones**: London, Paris, and several Chinese cities restrict internal combustion vehicles in central districts, directly boosting EVSS demand.
**Mandated fleet electrification**: Ride-hailing platforms like Uber and Lyft have been pushed by regulation to transition to EVs, with targets of 50–100% by 2030 in some jurisdictions.
**Supported public-private partnerships**: The most effective deployments combine city land grants with private capital, as seen in Madrid’s electric car-sharing program.

Technology Trends

Cost trends are moving in the right direction. Battery prices continue to fall—BloombergNEF predicts they will reach $100/kWh by 2026, a threshold that makes EV total cost of ownership competitive with gasoline. Fast-charging technology (150–350 kW) is shrinking recharging times to 15–30 minutes, addressing range anxiety. Smart grid integration allows EVSS fleets to charge during off-peak hours, reducing electricity costs and grid strain. The review notes that vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology could turn EVSS fleets into distributed battery storage, creating a new revenue stream for operators.

Behavioral Factors

Ultimately, people must choose to use shared electric mobility. The review identifies three key drivers:

**Trust**: Users need confidence that a charged vehicle will be available when and where they need it. Real-time app-based tracking and reservation systems have proven essential.
**Convenience**: Round-trip car-sharing (return to the same spot) is less popular than one-way models, which allow flexible drop-off. However, one-way systems require more careful fleet rebalancing and charging network coverage.
**Pricing**: Subscription models (e.g., a monthly fee for a certain number of hours) outperform pay-per-minute pricing in retaining frequent users. Dynamic pricing that adjusts for demand and battery level can nudge users toward underutilized vehicles.

The review urges operators to invest in user education—many potential adopters overestimate the difficulty of charging and underestimate the cost savings compared to private car ownership.

Conclusion: The Next Decade of EVSS

The systematic review of 52 studies from 2014 to 2023 paints a picture of a sector that has proven its environmental potential but remains locked in a growth trap. Electric vehicle shared services can cut emissions by up to 65%, but only if charging infrastructure, costs, and user confidence are addressed simultaneously. The next decade will determine whether EVSS becomes a cornerstone of sustainable urban mobility or remains a niche experiment.

For policymakers, the message is clear: do not wait for the market to solve the chicken-and-egg problem alone. Strategic public investment in charging networks, combined with regulatory pressure on private fleets, can create the conditions for a virtuous cycle. For investors, the meta-analysis confirms that battery cost declines and technology improvements are real—but returns depend on reaching scale in cities with strong policy support.

As the 11,800-plus downloads of this review suggest, the global community is hungry for answers. The evidence is now on the table. The question is whether cities will act on it.